Studies show that pictures are more easily recalled than words. Visual imagery offers cues in the form of ideas, patterns or associations that help with recall.
Visual ads require less exposer than verbal ones for long-term memory.
See the full study here :
Terry L. Childers Michael J. Houston, Conditions for a Picture-Superiority Effect on Consumer Memory, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 11, Issue 2, September 1984, Pages 643–654, https://doi.org/10.1086/209001
Participants first played a game against a partner, trying to find words in a puzzle. Then they were asked to find new words in a second puzzle.
17.5% of new words participants thought they came up with in the second puzzle…were actually copied from their partner!
We sometimes think other people’s ideas were our own, genuinely forgetting that they are not original.
See the full study here :
Marsh, R. L., & Bower, G. H. (1993). Eliciting cryptomnesia: Unconscious plagiarism in a puzzle task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(3), 673–688.
When students were asked to rate the attractiveness of high and average-performing quiz-takers, their ratings changed drastically when quiz-taker made a small blunder -spilling coffee on themselves.
Participants rated high-performers much higher, and average-performers much lower in attractiveness.
We find it endearing when people we admire make mistakes, but judge mediocre performers more harshly.
See the full study here :
Aronson, E., Willerman, B., & Floyd, J. (1966). The effect of a pratfall on increasing interpersonal attractiveness. Psychonomic Science, 4(6), 227–228. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03342263
What percentage of football fans helped an injured jogger based on the shirt the jogger wore?
We are more positive toward people who are part of our ‘in-group’
See the full study here :
Researchers conducted an experiment with students. Participants read essays that either supported or opposed Fidel Castro
Participants still believed the essay reflected the author’s true opinion, even when they knew the position was assigned.
We often assume people’s actions reflect their true beliefs or personality and overlook how much of their behavior is influenced by the situation.
See the full study here :
Jones, E. E., & Harris, V. A. (1967). The attribution of attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 3(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0
During three suggestive interviews, researchers tried to convince young adults to believe they had committed a crime as teenagers by using false parental memories, visualization techniques and social pressure.
70% of participants actually developed a completely false memory!
They described the event as if it happened, including ~65 details about the setting, people involved, emotions felt, and even interactions with the police!
Suggestions and external influences can induce false memories, making us believe in events we never experienced!
See the full study here :
Shaw, J., & Porter, S. (2015). Constructing Rich False Memories of Committing Crime. Psychological Science, 26(3), 291‑301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614562862
Hermann Ebbinghaus studied how we forget information over time by using nonsense syllables to avoid prior associations
He discovered that forgetting occurs quickly: up to 70% of what we learn is forgotten within a day, and up to 90% is lost within a week.
Most of what we learn is quickly forgotten—making consistent, spaced repetition essential for long-term retention.
See the full study here :
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). “Über das Gedächtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie.”
In a study, participants read false information about COVID-19, then some received a correction (with or without an explanation) to test if the initial false information still influenced their reasoning.
The results showed that many participants still relied on the false information, especially if the correction lacked an alternative explanation.
Misinformation can continue to influence us, even after it’s corrected, which highlights the importance of giving clear alternative explanations.
See the full study here :
van Huijstee, D., Vermeulen, I., Kerkhof, P. and Droog, E. (2022), Continued influence of misinformation in times of COVID-19. Int J Psychol, 57: 136-145. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12805
Researchers studied people’s physiological reactions to positive and negative news content across 17 countries and 6 continents.
On average, people are more physiologically activated by negative news than positive news.
Negative events generally have more impact on our mental + physical states than positive events.
See the full study here :
Soroka, S., Fournier, P., & Nir, L. (2019). Cross-national evidence of a negativity bias in psychophysiological reactions to news. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(38), 18888-18892.https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1908369116
Participants were divided into 2 groups: one group was informed that they qualified for a medical screening that involved physical discomfort, while the other group was told they were not eligible for this screening.
Those qualified for the screening developed more negative attitudes toward it, allowing them to reconcile their conflicting beliefs (screening hurts vs screening is important) and justify their decision to not get screened.
When our beliefs contradict each other or conflict with our actions, we experience cognitive discomfort. To ease this internal tension, we tend to adjust our thoughts or behaviors.
See the full study here :
Ent, M. & Gerend, M. (2016). Cognitive dissonance and attitudes toward unpleasant medical screenings. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(9), 2075-2084. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315570986
Researchers found that patients newly diagnosed with prostate cancer tend to opt for invasive surgery, even when it’s unlikely to be curative, instead of a more conservative approach.
This is driven by a “hot” state of fear, as they haven’t had time to fully process the diagnosis.
Their preferences are likely to shift once momentary distress subsides.
We struggle to empathize with our future selves, making it hard to predict how we’ll behave in emotional states different from our current one.
See the full study here :
Loewenstein, G. (2005). Hot-Cold Empathy Gaps and Medical Decision Making. Health Psychology, 24(4), 49-56. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.S49
Researchers offered a prize for drawing a red ball from a container with 50% red balls, or a container with an unknown ratio of red and black balls.
Participants preferred a 50-50 risk for a prize, despite the chance that an alternative may have a higher probability of winning.
People choose known risks to avoid uncertainty, even if they might miss better opportunities.
See the full study here :
Ellsberg, D. (1961). Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 75(4), 643-669
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1884324
Participants faced a scenario where a vaccine could prevent a deadly childhood disease but also carried a risk of fatal side effects. They had to determine the maximum acceptable risk.
Only 9% of participants accepted a high risk of vaccine-related deaths, even when it matched the disease’s mortality rate.
However, this percentage rises to 47% if the vaccine-related deaths occur only among children who would have otherwise died from the disease.
People often avoid acting, even when inaction creates a greater danger.
See the full study here :
Ritov, I., & Baron, J. (1990). Reluctance to vaccinate: Omission bias and ambiguity. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 3(4), 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.3960030404
Researchers tested if people overestimated their influence on lottery outcomes if they choose their own ticket.
Participants who chose their lottery ticket, believed they had more control over the random outcome!
People overestimate their control over events largely determined by chance.
See the full study here :
Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(2), 311-328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311
In a study participants were asked to choose between 2 candidates for a management team
The study suggests that leaders often prefer to select candidates who resemble themselves.
Favoring those with similar backgrounds, experiences, and even physical characteristics.
We tend to like people who look and think like us
See the full study here :
Eagleson G, Waldersee R, Simmons R (2000) Leadership behaviour similarity as a basis of selection into a management team. Br J Soc Psychol 39:301–308. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466600164480
In 2021, researchers explored how framing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) measures as benevolent acts carried out by workers impacted the behavior of 3,000 employees.
The average amount of cheating by employees increased by 11% after implementing CSR measures presented in this way.
After engaging in moral or altruistic actions, we tend to allow ourselves to act unethically.
See the full study here :
List, J. A. & Momeni, F. (2021). When corporate social responsibility backfires: Evidence from a natural field experiment. Management Science, 67(1), 8-21. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2019.3540.
Researchers showed people mixed positive and negative evidence—like medication effects and consumer reviews—and asked them to summarize it.
People relied 3x more on whether the evidence felt mostly positive or negative, even when the data didn’t support a clear answer.
We tend to oversimplify complex data into “good” vs. “bad”, leading to flawed decisions.
See the full study here :
Fisher, M., & Keil, F.C. (2018). The Binary Bias: A Systematic Distortion in the Integration of Information. Psychological Science, 29, 1846 – 1858. DOI: 10.1177/0956797618792256
Researchers analyzed gym attendance data from over 11,000 American undergrads with subscriptions to a university’s fitness center.
They discovered that after their birthday, participants were 7.5% more likely to go to the gym.
But as time goes on, motivation to exercise decreases until it’s lowest right before the next birthday.
People are more likely to tackle their goals after a temporal landmark such as New Year, birthdays, or moving out.
See the full study here :
Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., & Riis, J. (2014). The fresh start effect: Temporal landmarks motivate aspirational behavior. Management Science, 60(10), 2563-2582.
In an experiment, researchers gave participants the choice between $100 today or $120 in one week, most chose $100.
However, when same amounts were offered with a delay of 1 year and 1 year plus 1 week, most of the participants chose $120 in 1 year and 1 week.
We tend to value things exponentially more the closer they are to the present
See the full study here :
Green, L., Fry, A. F., & Myerson, J. (1994). Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison. Psychological science, 5(1), 33-36.
52 students watched 10 reverse psychology ads, then rated their interest and comfort level regarding the ads
The ads included phrases like “Don’t buy this jacket” and “Text while driving”.
49.7% of respondents showed interest in negative advertising messages, despite only 23.4% feeling comfortable with them.
Reverse psychology can effectively create awareness and interest, despite the discomfort it may initially evoke.
See the full study here :
Winslet Ting Yan Chan and Chi Hong Leung (2018). An empirical study on reverse psychology applied in advertising messages. Asian Journal of Empirical Research, 8(9), 321-329.
In 1975, economist Sam Peltzman analyzed the effects of automobile safety regulations on driver behavior
Safety measures like seat belts reduced fatalities, but they also encouraged riskier driving behaviors, such as speeding.
This “compensating behavior” diminished the safety benefits, highlighting the complex relationship between between regulations and driver actions.
The Peltzman Effect suggests that when people perceive a lower risk, they tend to engage in riskier behavior
See the full study here :
Peltzman, S. (1975). The effects of automobile safety regulation. Journal of Political Economy, 83(4), 677–725. https://doi.org/10.1086/260352
In an experiment there were 2 groups:
Sellers and Buyers
Buyers were asked how much they would pay for the cup. The average purchase price was $2.87
We tend to place more value on things that we own more than an equivalent item that does not belong to us.
See the full study here :
Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H. (1990). Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem. Journal of Political Economy, 98(6), 1325-1348.
In a study, participants were given unmarked red wine and a card with winery information.
Some were told the winery donates to charity, while others were not.
The wines that came with the charity information were better rated.
Organizations that implement CSR strategies often gain more respect from stakeholders, resulting in higher profits
See the full study here :
Chernev, A., & Blair, S. (2015). Doing well by doing good: the benevolent halo of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(6), 1412–1425.
When people are presented with too many options, they may experience decision fatigue, struggle to make a choice, or fear making the wrong choice, leading to regret and second-guessing.
Sometimes, having fewer options makes us feel better and more satisfied with our decisions.
Having too many options can make deciding more difficult, often causing people to delay or avoid making a choice.
See the full study here :
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing?. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79(6), 995.
Research suggest that managers who start a project are less likely to perceive that it is failing. They are more committed to it and are prone to continue funding it than managers who take the lead after the project has started.
Even if it could benefit us, we often hesitate to make decisions that contradict our past actions or statements.
See the full study here :
Schmidt, J. B., & Calantone, R. J. (2002). Escalation of commitment during new product development. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30(2), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/03079459994362
Doctors received monthly emails detailing the number of antibiotics they’ve prescribed compared to top performers with the lowest prescribing rates.
This nudge led to a 16.2% reduction in unnecessary antibiotic use.
Social norms can be a powerful influence on our decisions, especially when we’re compared to a group that is similar to us.
See the full study here :
Meeker, D., Linder, J. A., Fox, C. R., Friedberg, M. W., Persell, S. D., Goldstein, N. J., … & Doctor, J. N. (2016). Effect of behavioral interventions on inappropriate antibiotic prescribing among primary care practices: a randomized clinical trial. Jama, 315(6), 562-570.
When an event is highlighted in the media, it distorts people’s perceptions. A study asked students whether drug use was increasing or decreasing in recent years. Most answer that it is increasing.
However, the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse in the United States shows the contrary.
We tend to use the information that comes most readily to mind to make decisions about the future.
See the full study here :
Eisenman, Russell. “Belief that drug usage in the United States is increasing when it is really decreasing: An example of the availability heuristic.” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 31, no. 4 (1993), 249-252.
A study from researchers at the Perelman School of Medicine showed that setting generic drugs as the default choice increased generic prescribing rates from 75.3% to 98.4%.
Offering a pre-selected option, or default, reduces the cognitive effort needed to make a decision.
See the full study here :
Patel, M. S., Day, S. C., Halpern, S. D., Hanson, C. W., Martinez, J. R., Honeywell, S., & Volpp, K. G. (2016). Generic medication prescription rates after health system–wide redesign of default options within the electronic health record. JAMA internal medicine, 176(6), 847-848.
Researchers presented students with two types of cookies : chocolate chip ones (said to be rare) and raisin ones (abundant).
Even though some students said they preferred raisin cookies, they choose the chocolate chip ones.
Scarcity influences our decisions, making us value things more just because they are harder to obtain.
See the full study here :
Worchel, S., Lee, J., & Adewole, A. (1975). Effects of supply and demand on ratings of object value. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(5), 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.906
Participants were asked how they would respond to losing two items of equal value, a $10 movie ticket vs. a $10 bill.
A. You lost the ticket!
44% of respondents say they would pay for another
B. You lost a $10 bill!
88% of respondents said they would still purchase a ticket.
Instead of treating all money as having equal value, people tend to manage their spending by dividing funds into mental categories.
See the full study here :
Thaler, R. H. (2016). Misbehaving: The making of behavioral economics. WW Norton & Company.
The fear of receiving bad news can lead patients to ignore important warning signs or delay seeking treatment.
This can result in worsening health conditions or the spread of undiagnosed diseases.
The Ostrich Effect describes the tendency for people to avoid negative or unpleasant information.
See the full study here :
Persoskie, A., Ferrer, R.A. & Klein, W.M.P. Association of cancer worry and perceived risk with doctor avoidance: an analysis of information avoidance in a nationally representative US sample. J Behav Med 37, 977–987 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-013-9537-2
A Canadian Bank invites customers, with a message, to complete the registration process of an investment programme.
Some clients also receive a checklist or bar showing their progress and that they are one step away from completion.
These clients are 30% and 90% more likely to finish than those who only received the message.
Our motivation and effort increases as we get closer to our goal
See the full study here :
Favien Hue (2020). Behavioraleconomics.com: No Data, No Drama: How Behavioral Science Can Help the Banking Industry
In the context of patient care, healthcare providers may prefer treatments they are familiar with over more effective alternatives due to:
Status quo bias is when people stick with what they know, even when trying something new could lead to better outcomes.
See the full study here :
Samuelson, W., Zeckhauser, R. Status quo bias in decision making. J Risk Uncertainty 1, 7–59 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055564
People must choose a well-known song and tap the rhythm on the table. Listeners have to guess the song. The tappers think listeners will guess 50% of the time, when in fact they only guess 2.5% of the time.
Once we know the melody of a song, it is hard to imagine not knowing it.
We believe that concepts that are obvious to us are understood by others.
See the full study here :
Newton, E. L. (1990). The rocky road from actions to intentions. Stanford University.
On a trip booking website, a group of participants were shown the results immediately without seeing the process.
The other group had to wait 30 to 60 seconds, but the work done by the website was displayed on the screen: loading bar, number of results found, website searched and intermediate results.
Participants were significantly more satisfied when witnessing the work performed.
People tend to value products and services more when they are aware of the efforts and the work behind them.
See the full study here :
Buell, Ryan W., and Michael I. Norton. “The Labor Illusion: How Operational Transparency Increases Perceived Value.” Management Science 57, no. 9 (September 2011): 1564–1579.342, https:doi.org/10.1002/wcc.41
In an experiment, people were given two imaginary ice cream servings…
When the choices were presented separately, participants were willing to pay more for a smaller scoop of ice cream that was overflowing, compared to a bigger scoop not filled to the top.
The way options are presented can change how we perceive an item’s value.
See the full study here :
Hsee, C. K. (1998). Less is better: When low‐value options are valued more highly than high‐value options. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 11(2), 107-121.
We make inferences quickly and automatically from first impressions of certain traits.
In video conferences, a study showed that participants consider people with plant backgrounds or bookcases to be more trustworthy and competent. Home and novelty backgrounds received lower ratings.
We make judgments about people based on our feelings about one trait of the person.
See the full study here :
Cook, A., Thompson, M., & Ross, P. (2023). Virtual first impressions: Zoom backgrounds affect judgements of trust and competence. PLOS ONE, 18(9).
A study displayed a bowl of M&M’s containing a spoon, inviting individuals to scoop as many as they wanted.
Participants ate more candy when served with a large spoon than when served with a small spoon.
A quantity corresponding to one unit appears as the optimum quantity.
See the full study here :
Geier, A. B., Rozin, P., & Doros, G. (2006). Unit bias: A new heuristic that helps explain the effect of portion size on food intake. Psychological Science, 17(6), 521-525
In a series of experiments on predicting task completion times, researchers found that people often make plans based on hopeful expectations, rather than considering past experiences.
People tend to be overly optimistic when planning future tasks, often overlooking the actual time and resources needed.
See the full study here :
Buehler, R., Griffin, D., & Ross, M. (1994). Exploring the” planning fallacy”: Why people underestimate their task completion times. Journal of personality and social psychology, 67(3), 366.
Patients A and B underwent the same procedure. It lasted 8 minutes for A and 24 for B. Both reported a similar pain level overall.
For A, the procedure ends right at a time of high pain, whereas for B it ends at a time of less intense pain.
Although B’s procedure takes three times as long as A’s, A evaluates it as worse.
We remember and judge our experiences based on their peak and ending.
See the full study here :
Kahneman, D. (2012). Thinking, fast and slow. Penguin.
A study across Europe found that unrealistic optimism during the COVID-19 pandemic impacted negatively the adoption of protective behaviors. Despite all the clear warnings in the environment.
This worsened the consequences because preventive measures are key in tackling the spread of diseases.
We believe that things will work as usual, refusing to prepare for potential disasters.
See the full study here :
McColl, K. et al. (2022). Are People Optimistically Biased about the Risk of COVID-19 Infection? Lessons from the First Wave of the Pandemic in Europe. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 436
Online shopping websites can be overwhelming to customers because they offer many choices.
To help customers make decisions more easily, it’s important to use tactics that simplify their options.
It takes longer to make a purchasing decision as the number of options available increases.
See the full study here :
Proctor, R. W., & Schneider, D. W. (2018). Hick’s law for choice reaction time: A review. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(6), 1281-1299.
A series of studies showed that people’s evaluations of their overall happiness are biased by their responses to previous questions about dating, marriage, health, income…
The questions about specific aspects of their life caused them to focus on them, which shaped their perceptions and influenced their overall happiness rating.
When we consider the impact of a single factor on our well-being, we are prone to exaggerate its importance.
See the full study here :
In three conferences, participants were divided into two groups:
In group 1 only 6% ate a vegetarian menu in contrast to 87% in group 2.
When faced with different options, we tend to stick with the one selected by default.
See the full study here :
Study participants were presented with a series of scenarios and asked to describe how they would respond and how others might respond to each scenario.
The study revealed that participants often thought other people would make similar decisions as them.
Individuals overestimate how much their opinions, beliefs, preferences, and behaviors are shared by others.
See the full study here :
The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of experimental social psychology, 13(3), 279-301.
Three groups faced a legal case. One group was given just the plaintiff’s argument, another just the defendant’s and the last both arguments.
Those who received only one side’s argument gave more biased judgments and are more confident in their response, even though they are fully aware of the set up.
We make decisions with little information available.
See the full study here :
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking Fast and Slow Book.
Two experiments divide students into two groups, the same teacher teaches in both. In one group humor is used to teach the contents of the class, in the other it is not.
The group that learns with humor gets significantly higher grades on the final exam than the group without humor.
Things with humor are more likely to be remembered.
See the full study here :
Avner Ziv (2014). Teaching and Learning with Humor: Experiment and Replication.
People were asked if they would be willing to chaperone kids from the delinquent program at the zoo for 2 hours.
Another group was first asked if they would be willing to chaperone kids for 2 hours every week for 2 years. After everyone refused, they were asked to do it one time as the first group.
People in the second group were 3 times more likely to say yes.
We are more likely to say yes to a smaller request after having said no to a larger one.
See the full study here :
Cialdini et al (1975). Reciprocal Concessions Procedure for Inducing Compliance: The Door-in-the-Face Technique
+200 students received requests from their parents asking them to study more. These were formulated in a controlling, neutral or autonomy-supportive way.
When requests were made in a controlling way, adolescents expressed more frustration, pressure and reactance. Consequently, they acted in the opposite way and didn’t study.
We are less likely to adopt a behavior if we feel coerced or threatened.
See the full study here :
Petegem, Soenens,, Vansteenkiste & Beyers (2015). Rebels with a cause? Adolescent defiance from the perspective of reactance theory and self‐determination theory. Child Development, 86(3), 903-918.
In the United States, Democrats and Republicans believe that members of the other party hold more extreme views than they themselves do (for example, immigration positions).
Press coverage exacerbates this impression. At the mass level people perceive greater differences between the two sides than actually exist.
People tend to overestimate how much opposing members disagree with them.
See the full study here :
Levendusky & Malhotra (2013). The Effect of “False” Polarization: Are Perceptions of Political Polarization Self-Fulfilling Prophecies?
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